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Rationale: There are unexplained geographical and seasonal differences in the short-term effects of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) on human health. The hypothesis has been advanced to include the possibility that such differences might be due to variations in the PM 2.5 chemical composition, but evidence supporting this hypothesis is lacking. Objectives: To examine whether variation in the relative risks (RR) of hospitalization associated with ambient exposure to PM 2.5 total mass reflects differences in PM 2.5 chemical composition. Methods: We linked two national datasets by county and by season: (1) long-term average concentrations of PM 2.5 chemical components for 2000-2005 and (2) RRs of cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalizations for persons 65 years or older associated with a 10-mg/m 3 increase in PM 2.5 total mass on the same day for 106 U.S. counties for 1999 through 2005. Measurements and Main Results: We found a positive and statistically significant association between county-specific estimates of the short-term effects of PM 2.5 on cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalizations and county-specific levels of vanadium, elemental carbon , or nickel PM 2.5 content. Conclusions: Communities with higher PM 2.5 content of nickel, vanadium, and elemental carbon and/or their related sources were found to have higher risk of hospitalizations associated with short-term exposure to PM 2.5. Statistically significant associations between short-term exposure to airborne particulate matter (PM) and mortality and morbidity have been reported in numerous multicity studies (1-6). Several studies also found that health effect estimates vary substantially across communities and seasons (4, 7, 8). The findings of these studies support the hypothesis that geographical and seasonal heteroge-neity of community-specific relative rates could be explained by differences in the chemical composition of PM 2.5 (PM with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 mm). Animal and human toxicological studies support this hypothesis (9-12). However, empirical population-based evidence supporting this hypothesis is lacking. Understanding the basis of the variation in PM effects is critical to further characterize the biological mechanisms of toxicity and to move toward more focused regulatory approaches for PM (13). We investigated whether particular PM 2.5 chemical components are responsible for observed geographical and seasonal variation in the short-term association of PM 2.5 with hospital admissions (4, 7). We also performed a similar analysis based on effect estimates for PM 10 and mortality (see online supplement). METHODS We analyzed whether community-specific estimates of the impact of PM on health risk (cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions and mortality) were higher or lower in communities or seasons with particular PM 2.5 chemical composition, as indicated by the fraction of PM 2.5 total mass that is a particular component (e.g., elemental carbon [EC]). We estimated county-and season-specific relative risks (RR) of cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalization associated with a 10-mg/m 3 increase in PM 2.5 total mass on the same day for 106 U.S. counties for the years 1999 through 2005 (Figures 1 and 2). Counties were selected based on data availability for PM 2.5 total mass and chemical components and on having a population of 200,000 or more persons to allow for sufficient sample size and to allow a distribution of counties across the United States. The population criterion results in more urban counties. We conducted similar analysis for PM 10 and total nonaccidental mortality in 100 U.S. communities for 1987 through 2000 (see Figure E1 in the online supplement) (8). All county-and season-specific effect estimates were adjusted for day of the week, seasonality, and long-term trends based on a smooth function of a variable representing time by including these variables in the county-specific regression models. We adjusted for daily temperature and dew point temperature and for the previous 3 days' temperature and dew point temperature. Details of the methods are provided elsewhere (4, 7, 8). We generated a national database of PM 2.5 chemical component concentrations from February 2000 to December 2005 based on data obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (14). We calculated county-and season-specific averages of PM 2.5 chemical components that were demonstrated to contribute a substantial fraction of PM 2.5 total mass (14) or to have been implicated as potentially toxic in earlier research (11, 15-18) (Table 1). Detailed information on the spatial and temporal variation of the PM 2.5 chemical components is provided elsewhere (14). We then calculated the fraction of PM 2.5 total mass for each component by season and county. Chemical composition data were available for 106 of the 200 AT A GLANCE COMMENTARY Scientific Knowledge on the Subject Although airborne particulate matter (PM) has been linked to adverse human health effects, the chemical constituents that cause harm are unknown. The relationship between PM and health varies seasonally and regionally , as does the particle's chemical composition. What This Study Adds to the Field This work provides evidence that the chemical composition of PM affects its toxicity. In places and during seasons when PM had higher fractions of nickel, vanadium, and elemental carbon, the risks of hospital admission associated with PM with aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 mm were higher.

Published Oct 7, 2008

Bell, M. L., Ebisu, K., Peng, R. D., Samet, J. M., & Dominici, F. (2009). Hospital Admissions and Chemical Composition of Fine Particle Air Pollution. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 179, 1115–1120. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200808-1240OC

The question of whether air pollution contributes to asthma onset remains unresolved. Objectives: In this study, we assessed the association between asthma onset in children and traffic-related air pollution. Methods: We selected a sample of 217 children from participants in the Southern California Children's Health Study, a prospective cohort designed to investigate associations between air pollution and respiratory health in children 10-18 years of age. Individual covariates and new asthma incidence (30 cases) were reported annually through questionnaires during 8 years of follow-up. Children had nitrogen dioxide monitors placed outside their home for 2 weeks in the summer and 2 weeks in the fall-winter season as a marker of traffic-related air pollution. We used multilevel Cox models to test the associations between asthma and air pollution. Results: In models controlling for confounders, incident asthma was positively associated with traffic pollution, with a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.29 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.07-1.56] across the average within-community interquartile range of 6.2 ppb in annual residential NO2. Using the total interquartile range for all measurements of 28.9 ppb increased the HR to 3.25 (95% CI, 1.35-7.85). Conclusions: In this cohort, markers of traffic-related air pollution were associated with the onset of asthma. The risks observed suggest that air pollution exposure contributes to new-onset asthma.

Published Oct 1, 2008

Jerrett, M., Shankardass, K., Berhane, K., Gauderman, W. J., Künzli, N., Avol, E., Gilliland, F., Lurmann, F., Molitor, J. N., Molitor, J. T., Thomas, D. C., Peters, J., & McConnell, R. (2008). Traffic-related air pollution and asthma onset in children: A prospective cohort study with individual exposure measurement. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(10), 1433–1438. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10968

Background
Coal burning provides 70% of the energy for China’s industry and power, but releases large quantities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other pollutants. PAHs are reproductive and developmental toxicants, mutagens, and carcinogens.

Objective
We evaluated the benefit to neurobehavioral development from the closure of a coal-fired power plant that was the major local source of ambient PAHs.

Methods
The research was conducted in Tongliang, Chongqing, China, where a coal-fired power plant operated seasonally before it was shut down in May 2004. Two identical prospective cohort studies enrolled nonsmoking women and their newborns in 2002 (before shutdown) and 2005 (after shutdown). Prenatal PAH exposure was measured by PAH–DNA adducts (benzo[a]pyrene–DNA) in umbilical cord blood. Child development was assessed by the Gesell Developmental Schedules at 2 years of age. Prenatal exposure to other neurotoxicants and potential confounders (including lead, mercury, and environmental tobacco smoke) was measured. We compared the cohorts regarding the association between PAH–DNA adduct levels and neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Results
Significant associations previously seen in 2002 between elevated adducts and decreased motor area developmental quotient (DQ) (p = 0.043) and average DQ (p = 0.047) were not observed in the 2005 cohort (p = 0.546 and p = 0.146). However, the direction of the relationship did not change.

Conclusion
The findings indicate that neurobehavioral development in Tongliang children benefited by elimination of PAH exposure from the coal-burning plant, consistent with the significant reduction in PAH–DNA adducts in cord blood of children in the 2005 cohort. The results have implications for children’s environmental health in China and elsewhere.

Published Oct 1, 2008

Frederica Perera, Tin-yu Li, Zhi-jun Zhou, Tao Yuan, Yu-hui Chen, Lirong Qu, Virginia A. Rauh, Yiguan Zhang, and Deliang Tang 2008 Benefits of Reducing Prenatal Exposure to Coal-Burning Pollutants to Children’s Neurodevelopment in China Environmental Health Perspectives 116:10 CID: https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11480

Background: Environmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead, and mercury are released by combustion of coal and other fossil fuels.

Objectives: In the present study we evaluated the association between prenatal exposure to these pollutants and child development measured by the Gesell Developmental Schedules at 2 years of age.

Methods: The study was conducted in Tongliang, Chongqing, China, where a seasonally operated coal-fired power plant was the major source of ambient PAHs and also contributed lead and mercury to the air. In a cohort of nonsmoking women and their newborns enrolled between March 2002 and June 2002, we measured levels of PAH-DNA adducts, lead, and mercury in umbilical cord blood. PAH-DNA adducts (specifically benzo[a]pyrene adducts) provided a biologically relevant measure of PAH exposure. We also obtained developmental quotients (DQs) in motor, adaptive, language, and social areas.

Results: Decrements in one or more DQs were significantly associated with cord blood levels of PAH-DNA adducts and lead, but not mercury. Increased adduct levels were associated with decreased motor area DQ (p = 0.043), language area DQ (p = 0.059), and average DQ (p = 0.047) after adjusting for cord lead level, environmental tobacco smoke, sex, gestational age, and maternal education. In the same model, high cord blood lead level was significantly associated with decreased social area DQ (p = 0.009) and average DQ (p = 0.038).

Conclusion: The findings indicate that exposure to pollutants from the power plant adversely affected the development of children living in Tongliang; these findings have implications for environmental health policy.

Published May 1, 2008

Tang, D., Li, T. Y., Liu, J. J., Zhou, Z. J., Yuan, T., Chan, Y. H., Rauh, V. A., Xie, J., & Perera, F. (2008). Effects of prenatal exposure to coal-burning pollutants on children’s development in China. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(5), 674–679. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP.10471

We used data from a survey of 16493 West Virginians merged with county-level coal production and other covariates to investigate the relations between health indicators and residential proximity to coal mining. Results of hierarchical analyses indicated that high levels of coal production were associated with worse adjusted health status and with higher rates of cardiopulmonary disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hypertension, lung disease, and kidney disease. Research is recommended to ascertain the mechanisms, magnitude, and consequences of a community coal-mining exposure effect.

Published Apr 1, 2008

Hendryx, M., & Ahern, M. M. (2008). Relations between health indicators and residential proximity to coal mining in West Virginia. American Journal of Public Health, 98(4), 669–671. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.113472

Since Hurricane Katrina made landfall, there have been accusations of blatant racism in the government's response, on the one hand, and adamant denials that race played any role at all, on the other. We propose that both perspectives reflect oversimplifications of the processes involved, and the resulting debate may obscure a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation. Specifically, we discuss the potential roles of institutional discrimination, subtle contemporary biases, and racial mistrust. The operation of these processes is illustrated with events associated with Hurricane Katrina. In addition, drawing on these principles, we offer suggestions for present and future recovery efforts.© 2006 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues.

Published Dec 21, 2006

Henkel, K. E., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2006). Institutional Discrimination, Individual Racism, and Hurricane Katrina. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 6(1), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2006.00106.x

This study evaluates environmental justice issues in St James Parish, Louisiana. This parish is located along an 85-mile stretch of the Mississippi River which hosts over 100 chemical, petrochemical, refining and industrial plants and is often referred to as 'Cancer Alley'. With the use of geographic information system (GIS) mapping, it was found that polluting industries are located in the sections of the parish that have the highest percentages of African Americans, the lowest average household income and the most residents without a high school diploma. It was also found that the areas of the parish that have the highest percentage of residents who are employed in the manufacturing industry tend to be the wealthiest in the parish, have the least number of African American residents and have the most residents with the highest levels of education. Second, the levels and types of community advocacy that have occurred in response to the pollution and disproportionate environmental impacts in the parish are evaluated to find the most effective course of action. This study concludes that the most successful way that threatened communities can respond to environmental injustices is to take the initiative to solve the problem, connect with larger groups that have expertise, educate the public, and obtain legal representation.

Published Dec 1, 2006

Blodgett, A. D. (2006). An analysis of pollution and community advocacy in “Cancer Alley”: Setting an example for the environmental justice movement in St James Parish, Louisiana. Local Environment, 11(6), 647–661. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830600853700

Context: Evidence on the health risks associated with short-term exposure to fine particles (particulate matter ≤2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter [PM2.5]) is limited. Results from the new national monitoring network for PM2.5 make possible systematic research on health risks at national and regional scales. Objectives: To estimate risks of cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions associated with short-term exposure to PM2.5 for Medicare enrollees and to explore heterogeneity of the variation of risks across regions. Design, Setting, and Participants: A national database comprising daily time-series data daily for 1999 through 2002 on hospital admission rates (constructed from the Medicare National Claims History Files) for cardiovascular and respiratory outcomes and injuries, ambient PM 2.5 levels, and temperature and dew-point temperature for 204 US urban counties (population >200 000) with 11.5 million Medicare enrollees (aged >65 years) living an average of 5.9 miles from a PM2.5 monitor. Main Outcome Measures: Daily counts of county-wide hospital admissions for primary diagnosis of cerebrovascular, peripheral, and ischemic heart diseases, heart rhythm, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and respiratory infection, and injuries as a control outcome. Results: There was a short-term increase in hospital admission rates associated with PM 2.5 for all of the health outcomes except injuries. The largest association was for heart failure, which had a 1.28% (95% confidence interval, 0.78%-1.78%) increase in risk per 10-μg/m3 increase in same-day PM2.5. Cardiovascular risks tended to be higher in counties located in the Eastern region of the United States, which included the Northeast, the Southeast, the Midwest, and the South. Conclusion: Short-term exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk for hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. ©2006 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

Published Mar 8, 2006

Dominici, F., Peng, R. D., Bell, M. L., Pham, L., McDermott, A., Zeger, S. L., & Samet, J. M. (2006). Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295(10), 1127–1134. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.10.1127

Epidemiological studies suggest that people with diabetes are vulnerable to cardiovascular health effects associated with exposure to particle air pollution. Endothelial and vascular function is impaired in diabetes and may be related to increased cardiovascular risk. We examined whether endothelium-dependent and -independent vascular reactivity was associated with particle exposure in individuals with and without diabetes. METHODS AND RESULTS Study subjects were 270 greater-Boston residents. We measured 24-hour average ambient levels of air pollution (fine particles [PM2.5], particle number, black carbon, and sulfates [SO4(2-)]) approximately 500 m from the patient examination site. Pollutant concentrations were evaluated for associations with vascular reactivity. Linear regressions were fit to the percent change in brachial artery diameter (flow mediated and nitroglycerin mediated), with the particulate pollutant index, apparent temperature, season, age, race, sex, smoking history, and body mass index as predictors. Models were fit to all subjects and then stratified by diagnosed diabetes versus at risk for diabetes. Six-day moving averages of all 4 particle metrics were associated with decreased vascular reactivity among patients with diabetes but not those at risk. Interquartile range increases in SO4(2-) were associated with decreased flow-mediated (-10.7%; 95% CI, -17.3 to -3.5) and nitroglycerin-mediated (-5.4%; 95% CI, -10.5 to -0.1) vascular reactivity among those with diabetes. Black carbon increases were associated with decreased flow-mediated vascular reactivity (-12.6%; 95% CI, -21.7 to -2.4), and PM2.5 was associated with nitroglycerin-mediated reactivity (-7.6%; 95% CI, -12.8 to -2.1). Effects were stronger in type II than type I diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Diabetes confers vulnerability to particles associated with coal-burning power plants and traffic.

Published May 31, 2005

O’Neill, M. S., Veves, A., Zanobetti, A., Sarnat, J. A., Gold, D. R., Economides, P. A., Horton, E. S., & Schwartz, J. (2005). Diabetes enhances vulnerability to particulate air pollution-associated impairment in vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Circulation, 111(22), 2913–2920. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.517110

This paper documents the survey design methods and preliminary results of the first phase of the Atlanta Employer Commute Options Survey. More than 800 employers in the Atlanta metropolitan area were surveyed to determine the commute options programs (carpool matching, staggered work hours, transit pass subsidies, etc.) that they currently implement. Methodological development of the survey instrument and sampling plan is first provided. Then, survey results for the more than 400 responding companies are presented and discussed, highlighting some lessons learned and the impacts on the final survey. Preliminary results indicate that much more can be done in the Atlanta region by employers to encourage and provide incentives to employees through the implementation of commute options programs. Further analysis will focus on factors potentially driving employer provision of commute options strategies and upon the potential air quality benefits that may arise from further expansion of commute options programs. Prepared for the 98 th AWMA (2005) Meeting by Feng, C., Guensler, R. and DeHart-Davis L. 2

Published Jan 1, 2005

Feng, C., & Guensler, R. (n.d.). Survey Design and Preliminary Results of the Atlanta Employer Commute Options Survey Paper Number: #1071. Retrieved March 24, 2020, from http://lungaction.org/reports/stateoftheair2004.html