Research Hub

Human civilization is currently facing two particular challenges: population growth with a strong trend towards urbanization and climate change. The latter is now no longer seriously questioned. The primary concern is to limit anthropogenic climate change and to adapt our societies to its effects. Schools are a key part of the structure of our societies. If future generations are to take control of the manifold global problems, we have to offer our children the best possible infrastructure for their education: not only in terms of the didactic concepts, but also with regard to the climatic conditions in the school environment. Between the ages of 6 and 19, children spend up to 8 h a day in classrooms. The conditions are, however, often inacceptable and regardless of the geographic situation, all the current studies report similar problems: classrooms being too small for the high number of school children, poor ventilation concepts, considerable outdoor air pollution and strong sources of indoor air pollution.There have been discussions about a beneficial and healthy air quality in classrooms for many years now and in recent years extensive studies have been carried out worldwide. The problems have been clearly outlined on a scientific level and there are prudent and feasible concepts to improve the situation. The growing number of publications also highlights the importance of this subject. High carbon dioxide concentrations in classrooms, which indicate poor ventilation conditions, and the increasing particle matter in urban outdoor air have, in particular, been identified as primary causes of poor indoor air quality in schools. Despite this, the conditions in most schools continue to be in need of improvement. There are many reasons for this. In some cases, the local administrative bodies do not have the budgets required to address such concerns, in other cases regulations and laws stand in contradiction to the demands for better indoor air quality, and sometimes the problems are simply ignored.This review summarizes the current results and knowledge gained from the scientific literature on air quality in classrooms. Possible scenarios for the future are discussed and guideline values proposed which can serve to help authorities, government organizations and commissions improve the situation on a global level.

Published May 8, 2016

Salthammer, T., Uhde, E., Schripp, T., Schieweck, A., Morawska, L., Mazaheri, M., Clifford, S., He, C., Buonanno, G., Querol, X., Viana, M., & Kumar, P. (2016). Children’s well-being at schools: Impact of climatic conditions and air pollution. Environment International, 94, 196–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.05.009

Importance: Childhood bronchitic symptoms are significant public and clinical health problems that produce a substantial burden of disease. Ambient air pollutants are important determinants of bronchitis occurrence.

Objective: To determine whether improvements in ambient air quality in Southern California were associated with reductions in bronchitic symptoms in children.

Design, Setting, and Participants: A longitudinal study involving 4602 children (age range, 5-18 years) from 3 cohorts was conducted during the 1993-2001, 1996-2004, and 2003-2012 years in 8 Southern California communities. A multilevel logistic model was used to estimate the association of changes in pollution levels with bronchitic symptoms.

Exposures: Average concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 µm (PM10) and less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5).

Main Outcomes and Measures: Annual age-specific prevalence of bronchitic symptoms during the previous 12 months based on the parent’s or child’s report of a daily cough for 3 months in a row, congestion or phlegm other than when accompanied by a cold, or bronchitis.

Results: The 3 cohorts included a total of 4602 children (mean age at baseline, 8.0 years; 2268 girls [49.3%]; 2081 Hispanic white [45.2%] ) who had data from 2 or more annual questionnaires. Among these children, 892 (19.4%) had asthma at age 10 years. For nitrogen dioxide, the odds ratio (OR) for bronchitic symptoms among children with asthma at age 10 years was 0.79 (95% CI, 0.67-0.94) for a median reduction of 4.9 ppb, with absolute decrease in prevalence of 10.1%. For ozone, the OR was 0.66 (95% CI, 0.50-0.86) for a median reduction of 3.6 ppb, with an absolute decrease in prevalence of 16.3%. For PM10, the OR was 0.61 (95% CI, 0.48-0.78) for a median reduction of 5.8 µg/m3, with an absolute decrease in prevalence of 18.7%. For PM2.5, the OR was 0.68 (95% CI, 0.53-0.86) for a median reduction of 6.8 µg/m3, with absolute decrease in prevalence of 15.4%. Among children without asthma (n = 3710), the ORs were 0.84 (95% CI, 0.76-0.92) for nitrogen dioxide; 0.85 (95% CI, 0.74-0.97) for ozone, 0.80 (95% CI, 0.70-0.92) for PM10, and 0.79 (95% CI, 0.69-0.91) for PM2.5; with absolute decrease in prevalence of 1.8% for nitrogen dioxide, 1.7% for ozone, 2.2% for PM10, and 2.3% for PM2.5. The associations were similar or slightly stronger at age 15 years.

Conclusions and Relevance: Decreases in ambient pollution levels were associated with statistically significant decreases in bronchitic symptoms in children. Although the study design does not establish causality, the findings support potential benefit of air pollution reduction on asthma control.

Published Apr 12, 2016

Berhane, K., Chang, C. C., McConnell, R., Gauderman, W. J., Avol, E., Rapapport, E., Urman, R., Lurmann, F., & Gilliland, F. (2016). Association of Changes in Air Quality With Bronchitic Symptoms in Children in California, 1993-2012. JAMA, 315(14), 1491–1501. https://doi.org/10.1001/JAMA.2016.3444

Epidemiologic studies can measure exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using environmental samples, biomarkers, questionnaires, or observations. These different exposure assessment approaches each have advantages and disadvantages; thus, evaluating relationships is an important consideration. In the National Children’s Vanguard Study from 2009 to 2010, participants completed questionnaires and data collectors observed VOC exposure sources and collected urine samples from 488 third trimester pregnant women at in-person study visits. From urine, we simultaneously quantified 28 VOC metabolites of exposure to acrolein, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, benzene, 1-bromopropane, 1,3-butadiene, carbon disulfide, crotonaldehyde, cyanide, N,N-dimethylformamide, ethylbenzene, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, styrene, tetrachloroethylene, toluene, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride, and xylene exposures using ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with an electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI/MSMS) method. Urinary thiocyanate was measured using an ion chromatography coupled with an electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry method (IC-ESI/MSMS). We modeled the relationship between urinary VOC metabolite concentrations and sources of VOC exposure. Sources of exposure were assessed by participant report via questionnaire (use of air fresheners, aerosols, paint or varnish, organic solvents, and passive/active smoking) and by observations by a trained data collector (presence of scented products in homes). We found several significant (p < 0.01) relationships between the urinary metabolites of VOCs and sources of VOC exposure. Smoking was positively associated with metabolites of the tobacco constituents acrolein, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, crotonaldehyde, cyanide, ethylene oxide, N,N-dimethylformamide, propylene oxide, styrene, and xylene. Study location was negatively associated with the toluene metabolite N-acetyl-S-(benzyl)-L-cysteine (BMA), and paint use was positively associated with the xylene metabolites 2-methylhippuric acid (2MHA) and 3-Methylhippuric acid & 4-methylhippuric acid (3MHA + 4MHA). A near-significant (p = 0.06) relationship was observed between acrylamide metabolites and observation of incense.

Published Mar 29, 2016

Boyle, E. B., Viet, S. M., Wright, D. J., Merrill, L. S., Alwis, K. U., Blount, B. C., Mortensen, M. E., Moye, J., & Dellarco, M. (2016). Assessment of exposure to VOCs among pregnant women in the national children’s study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13040376

An integrated life cycle assessment and life cycle cost (LCC) model was developed to compare the life cycle performance of plug-in charging versus wireless charging for an electric bus system. The model was based on a bus system simulation using existing transit bus routes in the Ann Arbor–Ypsilanti metro area in Michigan. The objective is to evaluate the LCCs for an all-electric bus system utilizing either plug-in or wireless charging and also compare these costs to both conventional pure diesel and hybrid bus systems. Despite a higher initial infrastructure investment for off-board wireless chargers deployed across the service region, the wireless charging bus system has the lowest LCC of US$0.99 per bus-kilometer among the four systems and has the potential to reduce use-phase carbon emissions attributable to the lightweighting benefits of on-board battery downsizing compared to plug-in charging. Further uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis indicate that the unit price of battery pack and day or night electricity price are key parameters in differentiating the LCCs between plug-in and wireless charging. Additionally, scenario analyses on battery recycling, carbon emission pricing, and discount rates were conducted to further analyze and compare their respective life cycle performance.

Published Mar 24, 2016

Bi, Z., De Kleine, R., & Keoleian, G. A. (2017). Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Cost Model for Comparing Plug-in versus Wireless Charging for an Electric Bus System. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 21(2), 344–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12419

Mental acuity is essential to productivity in most professions and possibly associated with indoor air quality. I examine this potential link using a sample of university final examination results from a British institution. To account for potential confounders, I exploit the panel structure of the data to estimate models with subject and student fixed effects. I find that exposure to elevated levels of particulate matter (PM 10) has a statistically and economically significant effect on test scores and long-term academic indicators that are potentially correlated with future career outcomes. Furthermore, I find that the effect is larger among male, high ability and STEM subgroups and is present at levels considerably lower than current EPA standards. The results suggest that a narrow focus on traditional health outcomes, such as hospitalization, may understate the true cost of pollution as indoor air quality also affects productivity.

Published Mar 1, 2016

Roth, S. (2016). The Contemporaneous Effect of Indoor Air Pollution on Cognitive Performance: Evidence from the UK *. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/.

Preterm birth (PTB) has been associated with exposure to air pollution, but it is unclear whether effects might vary among air pollution sources and components. Objectives: We studied the relationships between PTB and exposure to different components of air pollution, including gases and particulate matter (PM) by size fraction, chemical composition, and sources. Methods: Fine and ultrafine PM (respectively, PM2.5 and PM0.1) by source and composition were modeled across California over 2000–2008. Measured PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone concentrations were spatially interpolated using empirical Bayesian kriging. Primary traffic emissions at fine scale were modeled using CALINE4 and traffic indices. Data on maternal characteristics, pregnancies, and birth outcomes were obtained from birth certificates. Associations between PTB (n = 442,314) and air pollution exposures defined according to the maternal residence at birth were examined using a nested matched case–control approach. Analyses were adjusted for maternal age, race/ethnicity, education and neighborhood income. Results: Adjusted odds ratios for PTB in association with interquartile range (IQR) increases in average exposure during pregnancy were 1.133 (95% CI: 1.118, 1.148) for total PM2.5, 1.096 (95% CI: 1.085, 1.108) for ozone, and 1.079 (95% CI: 1.065, 1.093) for nitrogen dioxide. For primary PM, the strongest associations per IQR by source were estimated for onroad gasoline (9–11% increase), followed by onroad diesel (6–8%) and commercial meat cooking (4–7%). For PM2.5 composition, the strongest positive associations per IQR were estimated for nitrate, ammonium, and secondary organic aerosols (11–14%), followed by elemental and organic carbon (2–4%). Associations with local traffic emissions were positive only when analyses were restricted to births with residences geocoded at the tax parcel level. Conclusions: In our statewide nested case–control study population, exposures to both primary and secondary pollutants were associated with an increase in PTB.

Published Feb 19, 2016

Laurent, Olivier, Hu, Jianlin , Li, Lianfa, Kleema, Michael J. , Bartell, Scott M., Cockburn, Myles, Escobedo, Loraine, and Wu, J. (2016). Research | Children ’ s Health A Statewide Nested Case – Control Study of Preterm Birth and Air Pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124(9), 2001–2008. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002365

In 2010, the Louisiana Asthma Management and Prevention Program (LAMP) implemented the Asthma-Friendly Schools Initiative in high-risk Louisiana populations. The social ecological model (SEM) was used as a framework for an asthma program implemented in 70 state K-12 public schools over 2 years. METHODS: Activities included a needs assessment, identification of students with asthma, individualized asthma action plans (AAP), staff trainings, environmental quality improvement, and school system policy changes to address the asthma burden. RESULTS: There were 522 new or existing asthma cases recognized. Asthma knowledge/awareness was measurably improved among school personnel. School indoor air quality was improved across all locations. School-level polices were adopted that improved AAP collection, compliance to bus-idling restrictions, and asthma medication self-carry. CONCLUSIONS: The SEM framework can be used for school-based programs to address successfully and improve asthma-related issues from the individual through policy levels.

Published Feb 2, 2016

Nuss, H. J., Hester, L. L., Perry, M. A., Stewart-Briley, C., Reagon, V. M., & Collins, P. (2016). Applying the Social Ecological Model to Creating Asthma-Friendly Schools in Louisiana. Journal of School Health, 86(3), 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12369

Prior research demonstrates that mortality rates increase during economic booms and decrease during economic busts, but little is known about the role of environmental risks as a potential mechanism for this relationship. We investigate the contribution of air pollution to the procyclicality of deaths by combining county-level data on overall, cause-specific, and age-specific mortality rates with county-level measures of ambient concentrations of three types of pollutants and the unemployment rate. After controlling for demographic variables and state-by-year fixed effects, we find a significant positive correlation between pollution concentrations and mortality rates. Controlling for carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone attenuates the relationship between overall mortality and the unemployment rate by 17%. The findings are robust to the use of state- rather than county-level data and to a variety of alternative specifications, although the attenuation of the unemployment-mortality relationship after controlling for pollution is insubstantial when including county-specific linear trends.

Published Feb 1, 2016

Heutel, G., & Ruhm, C. J. (2013). NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES AIR POLLUTION AND PROCYCLICAL MORTALITY. http://www.nber.org/papers/w18959

Typically, minority populations and impoverished peoples tend to be exposed to environmental hazards significantly more often than other demographic populations (Bullard, 2000). Oftentimes these exploited communities do not have the necessary resources to relocate, or have the political voice to deny the industry residency in their community. This research explores what environmental injustice looks like in Alabama, specifically examining the key players in local, state, and federal governance that have decision-making power in environmental justice (EJ) communities, the ways in which EJ issues affect residents and the community, and the ways in which communities are organizing for environmental justice. Our results have shown that frustration by EJ communities in Alabama have resulted from lack of participation in the decision-making process within local, state, and federal levels as well as a lack of effort to consider EJ as a serious issue by these entities. Residents perceive these issues as attacks on their quality of life, their culture, and their ability to pursue happiness. When organizing for environmental justice, important items residents and key informants highlighted were networking and building alliances across state lines, connecting environmental and social issues as a part of the framing of their issues, appropriate and representational leaders, and building connections amongst both social and environmental organizations. Through the use of Critical Race Theory as our theoretical framework, we were able to analyze racial dynamics at play between entities involved with environmental justice organizing in Alabama.

Published Jan 1, 2016

Pennington, M., & Ph.D, S. C. (2016). Unconventional Wisdom. University of Montevallo TRIO McNair Scholars Program 2016 Research Journal. https://www.montevallo.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/journal-2016-complete.pdf#page=186

Climate change is inextricably linked to economic inequality: it is a crisis that is driven by the greenhouse gas emissions of the 'haves' that hits the 'have-nots' the hardest.

While COP21 in Paris will see a deal negotiated between governments on the basis of the total emissions produced in their territories, the real winners and losers will be their citizens. The true test of the deal will be whether it delivers something for the poorest people who are both the least responsible for and the most vulnerable to climate change, wherever they live.

In this briefing Oxfam presents new data analysis that demonstrates the extent of global carbon inequality by estimating and comparing the lifestyle consumption emissions of rich and poor citizens in different countries. See also the technical briefing on the methodology and the data sets.

Published Dec 2, 2015

Oxfam 2015. Extreme Carbon Inequality. http://hdl.handle.net/10546/582545